1948 Israel War of Independence ( 1948 Arab–Israeli War )

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1948 Israel War of Independence (1948 Arab–Israeli War)


This article is for strategy study purpose, want to use text contents and military situation maps to increase the
understanding of this war.

Text contents are from Wikipedia  (chapter 4 Course of the war)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War
Maps are drew by www.warmap.org


Cellphone viewer please direct download pictures, and use cellphone viewer to
check detailed pictures

Course of the war

First phase: 15 May – 11 June 1948

On 14 May 1948, David Ben-Gurion declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz-Israel to be known as the
State of Israel, a few hours before the termination of the Mandate. At midnight on 15 May 1948, the British Mandate
was officially terminated, and the State of Israel came into being. Several hours later, Iraq and the neighboring Arab
states, Egypt, Jordan (Transjordan) and Syria, invaded the newborn state, and immediately attacked Jewish settlements.
What was now Israel had already, from 1 April down to 14 May, conducted 8 of its 13 full-scale military operations
outside of the area allotted to a Jewish state by partition, and the operational commander Yigal Allon later stated that
had it not been for the Arab invasion, Haganah's forces would have reached 'the natural borders of western Israel.'
Although the Arab invasion was denounced by the United States, the Soviet Union, and UN secretary-general Trygve
Lie, it found support from the Republic of China and other UN member states.

The initial Arab plans called for Syrian and Lebanese forces to invade from north while Jordanian and Iraqi forces were to
invade from east in order to meet at Nazareth and then to push forward together to Haifa. In the south, the Egyptians
were to advance and take Tel Aviv. At the Arab League meeting in Damascus on 11–13 May, Abdullah rejected the plan,
which served Syrian interests, using the fact his allies were afraid to go to war without his army. He proposed that the
Iraqis attack the Jezreel valley and the Arab Legion enter Ramallah and Nablus and link with the Egyptian army at Hebron,
which was more in compliance with his political objective to occupy the territory allocated to the Arab State by the
partition plan and promises not to invade the territory allocated to the Jewish State by the partition plan. In addition,
Lebanon decided not to take part in the war at the last minute, due to the still-influential Christians' opposition and due
to Jewish bribes.

Intelligence provided by the French consulate in Jerusalem on 12 May 1948 on the Arab armies' invading forces and their
revised plan to invade the new state contributed to Israel's success in withstanding the Arab invasion.

The first mission of the Jewish forces was to hold on against the Arab armies and stop them, although the Arabs had
enjoyed major advantages (the initiative, vastly superior firepower). As the British stopped blocking the incoming Jewish
immigrants and arms supply, the Israeli forces grew steadily with large numbers of immigrants and weapons, that allowed
the Haganah to transform itself from a paramilitary force into a real army. Initially, the fighting was handled mainly by the
Haganah, along with the smaller Jewish militant groups Irgun and Lehi. On 26 May 1948, Israel established the Israel
Defense Forces (IDF), incorporating these forces into one military under a central command.


Southern front – Negev

The Egyptian force, the largest among the Arab armies, invaded from the south.

On 15 May 1948, the Egyptians attacked two settlements: Nirim, using artillery, armoured cars carrying cannons, and
Bren carriers; and Kfar Darom using artillery, tanks and aircraft. The Egyptians attacks met fierce resistance from the
few and lightly armed defenders of both settlements, and failed. On 19 May the Egyptians attacked Yad Mordechai,
where an inferior force of 100 Israelis armed with nothing more than rifles, a medium machinegun and a PIAT anti-tank
weapon, held up a column of 2,500 Egyptians, well-supported by armor, artillery and air units, for five days. The
Egyptians took heavy losses, while the losses sustained by the defenders were comparatively light.

One of the Egyptian force's two main columns made its way northwards along the shoreline, through what is today
the Gaza Strip and the other column advanced eastwards toward Beersheba. To secure their flanks, the Egyptians
attacked and laid siege to a number of kibbutzim in the Negev, among those Kfar Darom, Nirim, Yad Mordechai, and
Negba. The Israeli defenders held out fiercely for days against vastly superior forces, and managed to buy valuable
time for the IDF's Givati Brigade to prepare to stop the Egyptian drive on Tel Aviv.

On 28 May the Egyptians renewed their northern advance, and stopped at a destroyed bridge north to Isdud. The
Givati Brigade reported this advance but no fighters were sent to confront the Egyptians. Had the Egyptians wished
to continue their advance northward, towards Tel Aviv, there would have been no Israeli force to block them.

From 29 May to 3 June, Israeli forces stopped the Egyptian drive north in Operation Pleshet. In the first combat mission
performed by Israel's fledgling air force, four Avia S-199s attacked an Egyptian armored column of 500 vehicles on its
way to Isdud. The Israeli planes dropped 70 kilogram bombs and strafed the column, although their machine guns
jammed quickly. Two of the planes crashed, killing a pilot. The attack caused the Egyptians to scatter, and they had
lost the initiative by the time they had regrouped. Following the air attack, Israeli forces constantly bombarded Egyptian
forces in Isdud with Napoleonchik cannons, and IDF patrols engaged in small-scale harassment of Egyptian lines. Following
another air attack, the Givati Brigade launched a counterattack. Although the counterattack was repulsed, the Egyptian
offensive was halted as Egypt changed its strategy from offensive to defensive, and the initiative shifted to Israel.

On 6 June, in the Battle of Nitzanim, Egyptian forces attacked the kibbutz of Nitzanim, located between Majdal
(now Ashkelon) and Isdud, and the Israeli defenders surrendered after resisting for five days.

Battles of Latrun

The heaviest fighting occurred in Jerusalem and on the Jerusalem – Tel Aviv road, between Jordan's Arab Legion and
Israeli forces. As part of the redeployment to deal with the Egyptian advance, the Israelis abandoned the Latrun
fortress overlooking the main highway to Jerusalem, which the Arab Legion immediately seized. The Arab Legion also
occupied the Latrun Monastery. From these positions, the Jordanians were able to cut off supplies to Israeli fighters
and civilians in Jerusalem.

The Israelis attempted to take the Latrun fortress in a series of battles lasting from 24 May to 18 July. The Arab Legion
held Latrun and managed to repulse the attacks. During the attempts to take Latrun, Israeli forces suffered some 586
casualties, among them Mickey Marcus, Israel's first general, who was killed by friendly fire. The Arab Legion also took
losses, losing 90 dead and some 200 wounded up to 29 May.

The besieged Israeli Jerusalem was only saved via the opening of the so-called "Burma Road", a makeshift bypass road
built by Israeli forces that allowed Israeli supply convoys to pass into Jerusalem. Parts of the area where the road
was built were cleared of Jordanian snipers in May and the road was completed on 14 June. Supplies had already begun
passing through before the road was completed, with the first convoy passing through on the night of 1–2 June. The
Jordanians spotted the activity and attempted to shell the road, but were ineffective, as it could not be seen. However,
Jordanian sharpshooters killed several road workers, and an attack on 9 June left eight Israelis dead. On 18 July, elements
of the Harel Brigade took about 10 villages to the south of Latrun to enlarge and secure the area of the Burma Road.

The Arab Legion was able to repel an Israeli attack on Latrun. The Jordanians launched two counterattacks, temporarily
taking Beit Susin before being forced back, and capturing Gezer after a fierce battle, which was retaken by two Palmach
squads the same evening.

Battle for Jerusalem

The Jordanians in Latrun cut off supplies to western Jerusalem. Though some supplies, mostly munitions, were
airdropped into the city, the shortage of food, water, fuel and medicine was acute. The Israeli forces were seriously short
of food, water and ammunition.

King Abdullah ordered Glubb Pasha, the commander of the Arab Legion, to enter Jerusalem on 17 May. The Arab Legion
fired 10,000 artillery and mortar shells a day, and also attacked West Jerusalem with sniper fire.

Heavy house-to-house fighting occurred between 19 and 28 May, with the Arab Legion eventually succeeding in
pushing Israeli forces from the Arab neighborhoods of Jerusalem as well as the Jewish Quarter of the Old City. The
1,500 Jewish inhabitants of the Old City's Jewish Quarter were expelled, and several hundred were detained. The Jews
had to be escorted out by the Arab Legion to protect them against Palestinian Arab mobs that intended to massacre
them. On 22 May, Arab forces attacked kibbutz Ramat Rachel south of Jerusalem. After a fierce battle in which 31
Jordanians and 13 Israelis were killed, the defenders of Ramat Rachel withdrew, only to partially retake the kibbutz
the following day. Fighting continued until 26 May, until the entire kibbutz was recaptured. Radar Hill was also taken
from the Arab Legion, and held until 26 May, when the Jordanians retook it in a battle that left 19 Israelis and 2
Jordanians dead. A total of 23 attempts by the Harel Brigade to capture Radar Hill in the war failed.

The same day, Thomas C. Wasson, the US Consul-General in Jerusalem and a member of the UN Truce Commission
was shot dead in West Jerusalem. It was disputed whether Wasson was killed by the Arabs or Israelis.

In mid to late October 1948, the Harel Brigade began its offensive in what was known as Operation Ha-Har, to secure the
Jerusalem Corridor.

Northern Samaria

An Iraqi force consisting of two infantry and one armoured brigade crossed the Jordan River from northern Jordan,
attacking the Israeli settlement of Gesher with little success. Following this defeat, Iraqi forces moved into the
strategic triangle bounded by the Arab towns Nablus, Jenin and Tulkarm. On 25 May, they were making their way
towards Netanya, when they were stopped. On 29 May, an Israeli attack against the Iraqis led to three days of
heavy fighting over Jenin, but Iraqi forces managed to hold their positions. After these battles, the Iraqi forces became
stationary and their involvement in the war effectively ended.

Iraqi forces failed in their attacks on Israeli settlements with the most notable battle taking place at Gesher, and instead
took defensive positions around Jenin, Nablus, and Tulkarm, from where they could put pressure on the Israeli center.
On 25 May, Iraqi forces advanced from Tulkarm, taking Geulim and reaching Kfar Yona and Ein Vered on the
Tulkarm-Netanya road. The Alexandroni Brigade then stopped the Iraqi advance and retook Geulim. The IDF Carmeli
and Golani Brigades attempted to capture Jenin during an offensive launched on 31 May, but were defeated in course
of the subsequent battle by an Iraqi counterattack.

Northern front – Lake of Galilee

On 14 May Syria invaded Palestine with the 1st Infantry Brigade supported by a battalion of armoured cars, a company
of French R 35 and R 37 tanks, an artillery battalion and other units. The Syrian president, Shukri al-Quwwatli
instructed his troops in the front, "to destroy the Zionists". "The situation was very grave. There aren’t enough rifles.
There are no heavy weapons," Ben-Gurion told the Israeli Cabinet. On 15 May, the Syrian forces turned to
the eastern and southern Sea of Galilee shores, and attacked Samakh the neighboring Tegart fort and the settlements
of Sha'ar HaGolan, Ein Gev, but they were bogged down by resistance. Later, they attacked Samakh using tanks
and aircraft, and on 18 May they succeeded in conquering Samakh and occupied the abandoned Sha'ar HaGolan.

On 21 May, the Syrian army was stopped at kibbutz Degania Alef in the north, where local militia reinforced by elements
of the Carmeli Brigade halted Syrian armored forces with Molotov cocktails, hand grenades and a single PIAT. One tank
that was disabled by Molotov cocktails and hand grenades still remains at the kibbutz. The remaining Syrian forces were
driven off the next day by four Napoleonchik mountain guns – Israel's first use of artillery during the war. Following the
Syrian forces' defeat at the Deganias a few days later, they abandoned the Samakh village. The Syrians were forced
to besiege the kibbutz rather than advance. One author claims that the main reason for the Syrian defeat was
the Syrian soldiers' low regard for the Israelis who they believed would not stand and fight against the Arab army.

On 6 June, nearly two brigades of the Arab Liberation Army and the Lebanese Army took Al-Malkiyya and Qadas in
what became the only intervention of the Lebanese army during the war.

On 6 June, Syrian forces attacked Mishmar HaYarden, but they were repulsed. On 10 June, the Syrians overran
Mishmar HaYarden and advanced to the main road, where they were stopped by units of the Oded Brigade.
Subsequently, the Syrians reverted to a defensive posture, conducting only a few minor attacks on small, exposed
Israeli settlements.

Palestinian forces

In the continuity of the civil war between Jewish and Arab forces that had begun in 1947, battles between Israeli
forces and Palestinian Arab militias took place, particularly in the Lydda, al-Ramla, Jerusalem, and Haifa areas. On 23
May, the Alexandroni Brigade captured Tantura, south of Haifa, from Arab forces. On 2 June, Holy War Army
commander Hasan Salama was killed in a battle with Haganah at Ras al-Ein.

Air operations

All Jewish aviation assets were placed under the control of the Sherut Avir (Air Service, known as the SA) in November
1947 and flying operations began in the following month from a small civil airport on the outskirts of Tel Aviv called
Sde Dov, with the first ground support operation (in an RWD-13) taking place on 17 December. The Galilee Squadron
was formed at Yavne'el in March 1948, and the Negev Squadron was formed at Nir-Am in April. By 10 May, when the
SA suffered its first combat loss, there were three flying units, an air staff, maintenance facilities and logistics support.
At the outbreak of the war on 15 May, the SA became the Israeli Air Force. With its fleet of light planes it was no match
for Arab forces during the first few weeks of the war with their T-6s, Spitfires, C-47s, and Avro Ansons.

On 15 May, with the beginning of the war, four Royal Egyptian Air Force (REAF) Spitfires attacked Tel Aviv, bombing
Sde Dov Airfield, where the bulk of Sherut Avir's aircraft were concentrated, as well as the Reading Power Station.
Several aircraft were destroyed, some others were damaged, and five Israelis were killed. Throughout the following
hours, additional waves of Egyptian aircraft bombed and strafed targets around Tel Aviv, although these raids had
little effect. One Spitfire was shot down by anti-aircraft fire, and its pilot was taken prisoner. Throughout the next six
days, the REAF would continue to attack Tel Aviv, causing civilian casualties. On 18 May, Egyptian warplanes attacked
the Tel Aviv Central Bus Station, killing 42 people and wounding 100. In addition to their attacks on Tel Aviv, the
Egyptians also bombed rural settlements and airfields, though few casualties were caused in these raids.

At the outset of the war, the REAF was able to attack Israel with near impunity, due to the lack of Israeli fighter aircraft
to intercept them, and met only ground fire.

As more effective air defenses were transferred to Tel Aviv, the Egyptians began taking significant aircraft losses. As a
result of these losses, as well as the loss of five Spitfires downed by the British when the Egyptians mistakenly attacked
RAF Ramat David, the Egyptian air attacks became less frequent. By the end of May 1948, almost the entire REAF
Spitfire squadron based in El Arish had been lost, including many of its best pilots.

Although lacking fighter or bomber aircraft, in the first few days of the war, Israel's embryonic air force still attacked
Arab targets, with light aircraft being utilized as makeshift bombers, striking Arab encampments and columns. The
raids were mostly carried out at night to avoid interception by Arab fighter aircraft. These attacks usually had little
effect, except on morale.

The balance of air power soon began to swing in favor of the Israeli Air Force following the arrival of 25 Avia S-199s
from Czechoslovakia, the first of which arrived in Israel on 20 May. Ironically, Israel was using the Avia S-199, an inferior
derivative of the Bf 109 designed in Nazi Germany to counter British-designed Spitfires flown by Egypt. Throughout
the rest of the war, Israel would acquire more Avia fighters, as well as 62 Spitfires from Czechoslovakia. On 28 May
1948, Sherut Avir became the Israeli Air Force.

Many of the pilots who fought for the Israeli Air Force were foreign volunteers or mercenaries, including many World
War II veterans.

On 3 June, Israel scored its first victory in aerial combat when Israeli pilot Modi Alon shot down a pair of Egyptian DC-3s
that had just bombed Tel Aviv. Although Tel Aviv would see additional raids by fighter aircraft, there would be no more
raids by bombers for the rest of the war. From then on, the Israeli Air Force began engaging the Arab air forces in
air-to-air combat. The first dogfight took place on 8 June, when an Israeli fighter plane flown by Gideon Lichtman shot
down an Egyptian Spitfire. By the fall of 1948, the IAF had achieved air superiority and had superior firepower and
more knowledgeable personnel, many of whom had seen action in World War II. Israeli planes then began
intercepting and engaging Arab aircraft on bombing missions.


Following Israeli air attacks on Egyptian and Iraqi columns, the Egyptians repeatedly bombed Ekron Airfield, where IAF
fighters were based. During a 30 May raid, bombs aimed for Ekron hit central Rehovot, killing 7 civilians and wounding
30. In response to this, and probably to the Jordanian victories at Latrun, Israel began bombing targets in Arab cities
. On the night of 31 May/1 June, the first Israeli raid on an Arab capital took place when three IAF planes flew to Amman
and dropped several dozen 55 and 110-pound bombs, hitting the King's Palace and an adjacent British airfield. Some 12
people were killed and 30 wounded. During the attack, an RAF hangar was damaged, as were some British aircraft.
The British threatened that in the event of another such attack, they would shoot down the attacking aircraft and
bomb Israeli airfields, and as a result, Israeli aircraft did not attack Amman again for the rest of the war. Israel also
bombed Arish, Gaza, Damascus, and Cairo. Israeli Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress bombers coming to Israel from
Czechoslovakia bombed Egypt on their way to Israel. According to Alan Dershowitz, Israeli planes focused
on bombing military targets in these attacks, though Benny Morris wrote that an 11 June air raid on Damascus was
indiscriminate.

Sea battles

At the outset of the war, the Israeli Navy consisted of three former Aliyah Bet ships that had been seized by the British
and impounded in Haifa harbor, where they were tied up at the breakwater. Work on establishing a navy had begun
shortly before Israeli independence, and the three ships were selected due to them having a military background – one,
the INS Eilat, was an ex-US Coast Guard icebreaker, and the other two, the INS Haganah and INS Wedgwood, had been
Royal Canadian Navy corvettes. The ships were put into minimum running condition by contractors dressed as
stevedores and port personnel, who were able to work in the engine rooms and below deck. The work had to be
clandestine to avoid arousing British suspicion. On 21 May 1948, the three ships set sail for Tel Aviv, and were made to
look like ships that had been purchased by foreign owners for commercial use. In Tel Aviv, the ships were fitted with
small field guns dating to the late 19th century and anti-aircraft guns. After the British left Haifa port on 30 June, Haifa
became the main base of the Israeli Navy. In October 1948, a submarine chaser was purchased from the United States.
The warships were manned by former merchant seamen, former crewmembers of Aliyah Bet ships, Israelis who had
served in the Royal Navy during World War II, and foreign volunteers. The newly refurbished and crewed warships
served on coastal patrol duties and bombarded Egyptian coastal installations in and around the Gaza area all the way
to Port Said.


End of the first phase

Throughout the following days, the Arabs were only able to make limited gains due to fierce Israeli resistance, and were
quickly driven off their new holdings by Israeli counterattacks.

As the war progressed, the IDF managed to field more troops than the Arab forces. In July 1948, the IDF had 63,000
troops; by early spring 1949, they had 115,000. The Arab armies had an estimated 40,000 troops in July 1948, rising
to 55,000 in October 1948, and slightly more by the spring of 1949.


Upon the implementation of the truce, the IDF had control over nine Arab cities and towns or mixed cities and towns:
New Jerusalem, Jaffa, Haifa, Acre, Safed, Tiberias, Baysan (Beit She'an), Samakh and Yibna (Yavne). Another city, Jenin,
was not occupied but its residents fled. The combined Arab forces captured 14 Jewish settlement points, but only one
of them, Mishmar HaYarden, was in the territory of the proposed Jewish State according to Resolution 181. Within the
boundaries of the proposed Jewish state, there were twelve Arab villages which opposed Jewish control or were
captured by the invading Arab armies, and in addition to them, the Lod Airport and pumping station near Antipatris,
which were within the boundaries of the proposed Jewish state, were under the control of the Arabs. The IDF captured
about 50 large Arab villages outside of the boundaries of the proposed Jewish State and a larger number of hamlets
and Bedouin encampments. 350 square kilometers of the proposed Jewish State were under the control of the Arab
forces, while 700 square kilometers of the proposed Arab State were under the control of the IDF. This figure ignores
the Negev desert which wasn't under any absolute control of either side.

In the period between the invasion and the first truce the Syrian army had 315 of its men killed and 400–500 injured;
the Iraqi expeditionary force had 200 of its men killed and 500 injured; the Jordanian Arab Legion had 300 of its men
killed and 400–500 (including irregulars and Palesinian volunteers fighting under the Jordanians); the Egyptian army
had 600 of its men killed and 1,400 injured (including irregulars from the Muslim Brotherhood); the ALA, which returned
to fight in early June, had 100 of its men killed or injured. 800 Jews were taken hostage by the Arabs and 1,300 Arabs
were taken hostage by the Jews, mostly Palestinians.

First truce: 11 June – 8 July 1948

The UN declared a truce on 29 May, which came into effect on 11 June and lasted 28 days. The truce was designed to
last 28 days and an arms embargo was declared with the intention that neither side would make any gains from the
truce. Neither side respected the truce; both found ways around the restrictions placed on them. Both the Israelis and
the Arabs used this time to improve their positions, a direct violation of the terms of the ceasefire.

Reinforcements

At the time of the truce, the British view was that "the Jews are too weak in armament to achieve spectacular success".
As the truce commenced, a British officer stationed in Haifa stated that the four-week-long truce "would certainly
be exploited by the Jews to continue military training and reorganization while the Arabs would waste [them] feuding
over the future divisions of the spoils". During the truce, the Israelis sought to bolster their forces by massive import
of arms. The IDF was able to acquire weapons from Czechoslovakia as well as improve training of forces and
reorganization of the army during this time. Yitzhak Rabin, an IDF commander at the time of the war and later Israel's
fifth Prime Minister, stated "[w]ithout the arms from Czechoslovakia... it is very doubtful whether we would have been
able to conduct the war".

The Israeli army increased its manpower from approximately 30,000–35,000 men to almost 65,000 during the truce
due to mobilization and the constant immigration into Israel. It was also able to increase its arms supply to more than
25,000 rifles, 5,000 machine guns, and fifty million bullets. As well as violating the arms and personnel embargo, they
also sent fresh units to the front lines, much as their Arab enemies did.

During the truce, Irgun attempted to bring in a private arms shipment aboard a ship called Altalena. When they
refused to hand the arms to the Israeli government, Ben-Gurion ordered that the arms be confiscated by force if
necessary. After meeting with armed resistance, the army was ordered by Ben-Gurion to sink the ship. Several Irgun
members and IDF soldiers were killed in the fighting.

UN mediator Bernadotte

The ceasefire was overseen by UN mediator Folke Bernadotte and a team of UN Observers made up of army officers
from Belgium, United States, Sweden and France Bernadotte was voted in by the General Assembly to "assure
the safety of the holy places, to safeguard the well being of the population, and to promote 'a peaceful adjustment
of the future situation of Palestine'".

Folke Bernadotte reported:

    During the period of the truce, three violations occurred ... of such a serious nature:

       1. the attempt by ...the Irgun Zvai Leumi to bring war materials and immigrants, including men of military age,
           into Palestine aboard the ship Altalena on 21 June...
       2. Another truce violation occurred through the refusal of Egyptian forces to permit the passage of relief convoys
           to Jewish settlements in the Negeb...
       3. The third violation of the truce arose as a result of the failure of the Transjordan and Iraqi forces to permit the
           flow of water to Jerusalem.

After the truce was in place, Bernadotte began to address the issue of achieving a political settlement. The main obstacles
in his opinion were "the Arab world's continued rejection of the existence of a Jewish state, whatever its borders; Israel's
new 'philosophy', based on its increasing military strength, of ignoring the partition boundaries and conquering what
additional territory it could; and the emerging Palestinian Arab refugee problem".

Taking all the issues into account, Bernadotte presented a new partition plan. He proposed there be a Palestinian Arab state
alongside Israel and that a "Union" "be established between the two sovereign states of Israel and Jordan (which now
included the West Bank); that the Negev, or part of it, be included in the Arab state and that Western Galilee, or part of it,
be included in Israel; that the whole of Jerusalem be part of the Arab state, with the Jewish areas enjoying municipal
autonomy and that Lydda Airport and Haifa be 'free ports' – presumably free of Israeli or Arab sovereignty". Israel
rejected the proposal, in particular the aspect of losing control of Jerusalem, but they did agree to extend the truce for
another month. The Arabs rejected both the extension of the truce and the proposal.




Second phase: 8–18 July 1948 ("Ten Day Battles")







On 8 July, the day before the expiration of the truce, Egyptian forces under General Muhammad Naguib renewed the
war by attacking Negba. The following day, Israeli air forces launched a simultaneous offensive on all three fronts,
ranging from Quneitra to Arish and the Egyptian air force bombed the city of Tel Aviv. During the fighting, the
Israelis were able to open a lifeline to a number of besieged kibbutzim.

The fighting continued for ten days until the UN Security Council issued the Second Truce on 18 July. During those
10 days, the fighting was dominated by large-scale Israeli offensives and a defensive posture from the Arab side.

Southern front

In the south, the IDF carried out several offensives, including Operation An-Far and Operation Death to the Invader.
The task of the 11th Brigades's 1st Battalion on the southern flank was to capture villages, and its operation ran
smoothly, with but little resistance from local irregulars. According to Amnon Neumann, a Palmach veteran of the
Southern front, hardly any Arab villages in the south fought back, due to the miserable poverty of their means
and lack of weapons, and suffered expulsion. What slight resistance was offered was quelled by an artillery
barrage, followed by the storming of the village, whose residents were expelled and houses destroyed.

On 12 July, the Egyptians launched an offensive action, and again attacked Negba, which they had previously failed
to capture, using three infantry battalions, an armored battalion, and an artillery regiment. In the battle that followed,
the Egyptians were repulsed, suffering 200–300 casualties, while the Israelis lost 5 dead and 16 wounded.

After failing to take Negba, the Egyptians turned their attention to more isolated settlements and positions. On 14 July,
an Egyptian attack on Gal On was driven off by a minefield and by resistance from Gal On's residents.

The Egyptians then assaulted the lightly defended village of Be'erot Yitzhak. The Egyptians managed to penetrate the
village perimeter, but the defenders concentrated in an inner position in the village and fought off the Egyptian
advance until IDF reinforcements arrived and drove out the attackers. The Egyptians suffered an estimated 200
casualties, while the Israelis had 17 dead and 15 wounded. The battle was one of Egypt's last offensive actions during
the war, and the Egyptians did not attack any Israeli villages following this battle.

Lydda and al-Ramla

On 10 July, Glubb Pasha ordered the defending Arab Legion troops to "make arrangements...for a phony war".
Israeli Operation Danny was the most important Israeli offensive, aimed at securing and enlarging the corridor between
Jerusalem and Tel Aviv by capturing the roadside cities Lod (Lydda) and Ramle. In a second planned stage of the
operation the fortified positions of Latrun – overlooking the Tel Aviv-Jerusalem highway – and the city of Ramallah
were also to be captured. Hadita, near Latrun, was captured by the Israelis at a cost of 9 dead.

The objectives of Operation Danny were to capture territory east of Tel Aviv and then to push inland and relieve
the Jewish population and forces in Jerusalem. Lydda had become an important military center in the region, lending
support to Arab military activities elsewhere, and Ramle was one of the main obstacles blocking Jewish transportation.
Lydda was defended by a local militia of around 1,000 residents, with an Arab Legion contingent of 125–300.

The IDF forces gathered to attack the city numbered around 8,000. It was the first operation where several brigades
were involved. The city was attacked from the north via Majdal al-Sadiq and al-Muzayri'a, and from the east via Khulda,
al-Qubab, Jimzu and Daniyal. Bombers were also used for the first time in the conflict to bombard the city. The IDF
captured the city on 11 July.

Up to 450 Arabs and 9–10 Israeli soldiers were killed. The next day, Ramle fell. The civilian populations of Lydda
and Ramle fled or were expelled to the Arab front lines, and following resistance in Lydda, the population there was
expelled without provision of transport vehicles; some of the evictees died on the long walk under the hot July sun.

On 15–16 July, an attack on Latrun took place but did not manage to occupy the fort. A desperate second attempt
occurred on 18 July by units from the Yiftach Brigade equipped with armored vehicles, including two Cromwell tanks,
but that attack also failed. Despite the second truce, which began on 18 July, the Israeli efforts to conquer Latrun
continued until 20 July.

Jerusalem

Operation Kedem's aim was to secure the Old City of Jerusalem, but fewer resources were allocated. The operation
failed. Originally the operation was to begin on 8 July, immediately after the first truce, by Irgun and Lehi forces.
However, it was delayed by David Shaltiel, possibly because he did not trust their ability after their failure to capture
Deir Yassin without Haganah assistance.

Irgun forces commanded by Yehuda Lapidot were to break through at the New Gate, Lehi was to break through
the wall stretching from the New Gate to the Jaffa Gate, and the Beit Horon Battalion was to strike from Mount Zion.

The battle was planned to begin on the Shabbat, at 20:00 on 16 July, two days before the second ceasefire of the
war. The plan went wrong from the beginning and was postponed first to 23:00 and then to midnight. It was not
until 02:30 that the battle actually began. The Irgun managed to break through at the New Gate, but the other
forces failed in their missions. At 05:45 on 17 July, Shaltiel ordered a retreat and to cease hostilities.

On 14 July 1948, Irgun occupied the Arab village of Malha after a fierce battle. Several hours later, the Arabs
launched a counterattack, but Israeli reinforcements arrived, and the village was retaken at a cost of 17 dead.

Southern Galilee

The second plan was Operation Dekel, which was aimed at capturing the Lower Galilee including Nazareth. Nazareth
was captured on 16 July, and by the time the second truce took effect at 19:00 18 July, the whole Lower Galilee
from Haifa Bay to the Sea of Galilee was captured by Israel.

Eastern Galilee

Operation Brosh was launched in a failed attempt to dislodge Syrian forces from the Eastern Galilee and the Benot
Yaakov Bridge. During the operation, 200 Syrians and 100 Israelis were killed. The Israeli Air Force also bombed
Damascus for the first time.

Second truce: 18 July – 15 October 1948

At 19:00 on 18 July, the second truce of the conflict went into effect after intense diplomatic efforts by the UN.

On 16 September, Count Folke Bernadotte proposed a new partition for Palestine in which the Negev would be divided
between Jordan and Egypt, and Jordan would annex Lydda and Ramla. There would be a Jewish state in the whole
of Galilee, with the frontier running from Faluja northeast towards Ramla and Lydda. Jerusalem would be internationalized,
with municipal autonomy for the city's Jewish and Arab inhabitants, the Port of Haifa would be a free port, and Lydda
Airport would be a free airport. All Palestinian refugees would be granted the right of return, and those who chose
not to return would be compensated for lost property. The UN would control and regulate Jewish immigration.

The plan was once again rejected by both sides. On the next day, 17 September, Bernadotte was assassinated in
Jerusalem by the militant Zionist group Lehi. A four-man team ambushed Bernadotte's motorcade in Jerusalem, killing
him and a French UN observer sitting next to him. Lehi saw Bernadotte as a British and Arab puppet, and thus a serious
threat to the emerging State of Israel, and feared that the provisional Israeli government would accept the plan, which
it considered disastrous. Unbeknownst to Lehi, the government had already decided to reject it and resume combat
in a month. Bernadotte's deputy, American Ralph Bunche, replaced him.

On 22 September 1948, the Provisional State Council of Israel passed the Area of Jurisdiction and Powers Ordnance,
5708–1948. The law officially added to Israel's size by annexing all land it had captured since the war began. It also
declared that from then on, any part of Palestine captured by the Israeli army would automatically become part
of Israel.

Little triangle pocket

The Arab villagers of the area known as the "Little Triangle" south of Haifa, repeatedly fired at Israeli traffic along the
main road from Tel Aviv to Haifa and were supplied by the Iraqis from northern Samaria. The sniping at traffic
continued during the Second Truce. The poorly planned assaults on 18 June and 8 July had failed to dislodge Arab
militia from their superior positions. The Israelis launched Operation Shoter on 24 July in order to gain control of the
main road to Haifa and to destroy all the enemy in the area. Israeli assaults on 24 and 25 July were beaten back
by stiff resistance. The Israelis then broke the Arab defenses with an infantry and armour assault backed by heavy
artillery shelling and aerial bombing. Three Arab villages surrendered, and most of the inhabitants fled before and during
the attack. The Israeli soldiers and aircraft struck at one of the Arab retreat routes, killing 60 Arab soldiers. Most of the
inhabitants fled before and during the attack, reaching northern Samaria; hundreds were forcibly expelled during the
following days. At least a hundred militiamen and civilians were killed.

The Arabs claimed that the Israelis had massacred Arab civilians, but the Israelis rejected the claims. A United Nations
investigation found no evidence of a massacre. Following the operation, the Tel Aviv-Haifa road was open to Israeli
military and civilian traffic, and Arab roadblocks along the route were removed. Traffic along the Haifa-Hadera coastal
railway was also restored.

Third phase: 15 October 1948 – 10 March 1949







Israel launched a series of military operations to drive out the Arab armies and secure the northern and southern borders
of Israel.

Northern front – Galilee

On 22 October, the third truce went into effect. Irregular Arab forces refused to recognize the truce, and continued
to harass Israeli forces and settlements in the north. On the same day that the truce came into effect, the Arab Liberation
Army violated the truce by attacking Manara, capturing the strongpoint of Sheikh Abed, repulsing counterattacks by local
Israeli units, and ambushed Israeli forces attempting to relieve Manara. The IDF's Carmeli Brigade lost 33 dead and 40
wounded. Manara and Misgav Am were totally cut off, and Israel's protests at the UN failed to change the situation.

On 24 October, the IDF launched Operation Hiram and captured the entire upper Galilee area, driving the ALA and
Lebanese Army back to Lebanon, and ambushing and destroying an entire Syrian battalion. The Israeli force
of four infantry brigades was commanded by Moshe Carmel. The entire operation lasted just 60 hours, during
which numerous villages were captured, often after locals or Arab forces put up resistance. Arab losses were
estimated at 400 dead and 550 taken prisoner, with low Israeli casualties.

Some prisoners were reportedly executed by the Israeli forces. An estimated 50,000 Palestinian refugees fled into
Lebanon, some of them fleeing ahead of the advancing forces, and some expelled from villages which had resisted,
while the Arab inhabitants of those villages which had remained at peace were allowed to remain and became Israeli
citizens. The villagers of Iqrit and Birim were persuaded to leave their homes by Israeli authorities, who promised
them that they would be allowed to return. Israel eventually decided not to allow them to return, and offered them
financial compensation, which they refused to accept.

At the end of the month, the IDF had captured the whole of Galilee, driven all Lebanese forces out of Israel, and had
advanced 5 miles (8.0 km) into Lebanon to the Litani River, occupying thirteen Lebanese villages. In the village
of Hula, two Israeli officers killed between 35 and 58 prisoners as retaliation for the Haifa Oil Refinery massacre. Both
officers were later put on trial for their actions.

Negev
Israel launched a series of military operations to drive out the Arab armies and secure the borders of Israel. However,
invading the West Bank might have brought into the borders of the expanding State of Israel a massive Arab
population it could not absorb. The Negev desert was an empty space for expansion, so the main war effort shifted
to Negev from early October. Israel decided to destroy or at least drive out the Egyptian expeditionary force
since the Egyptian front lines were too vulnerable as permanent borders.

On 15 October, the IDF launched Operation Yoav in the northern Negev. Its goal was to drive a wedge between
the Egyptian forces along the coast and the Beersheba-Hebron-Jerusalem road and ultimately to conquer the whole
Negev. This was a special concern on the Israeli part because of a British diplomatic campaign to have the entire
Negev handed over to Egypt and Jordan, and which thus made Ben-Gurion anxious to have Israeli forces in
control of the Negev as soon as possible.

Operation Yoav was headed by the Southern Front commander Yigal Allon. Committed to Yoav were three infantry
and one armoured brigades, who were given the task of breaking through the Egyptian lines. The Egyptian
positions were badly weakened by the lack of a defense in depth, which meant that once the IDF had broken through
the Egyptian lines, there was little to stop them. The operation was a huge success, shattering the Egyptian
ranks and forcing the Egyptian Army from the northern Negev, Beersheba and Ashdod.

In the so-called "Faluja Pocket", an encircled Egyptian force was able to hold out for four months until the 1949
Armistice Agreements, when the village was peacefully transferred to Israel and the Egyptian troops left.
Four warships of the Israeli Navy provided support by bombarding Egyptian shore installations in the Ashkelon
area, and preventing the Egyptian Navy from evacuating retreating Egyptian troops by sea.

On 19 October, Operation Ha-Har commenced in the Jerusalem Corridor, while a naval battle also took place near
Majdal (now Ashkelon), with three Israeli corvettes facing an Egyptian corvette with air support. An Israeli sailor
was killed and four wounded, and two of the ships were damaged. One Egyptian plane was shot down, but the
corvette escaped. Israeli naval vessels also shelled Majdal on 17 October, and Gaza on 21 October, with air support
from the Israeli Air Force. The same day, the IDF captured Beersheba, and took 120 Egyptian soldiers prisoner.
On 22 October, Israeli naval commandos using explosive boats sank the Egyptian flagship Emir Farouk, and
damaged an Egyptian minesweeper.

On 9 November 1948, the IDF launched Operation Shmone to capture the Tegart fort in the village of Iraq Suwaydan.
The fort's Egyptian defenders had previously repulsed eight attempts to take it, including two during Operation Yoav.
Israeli forces bombarded the fort before an assault with artillery and airstrikes by B-17 bombers. After breaching the
outlying fences without resistance, the Israelis blew a hole in the fort's outer wall, prompting the 180 Egyptian
soldiers manning the fort to surrender without a fight. The defeat prompted the Egyptians to evacuate several nearby
positions, including hills the IDF had failed to take by force. Meanwhile, IDF forces took Iraq Suwaydan itself after a
fierce battle, losing 6 dead and 14 wounded.

From 5 to 7 December, the IDF conducted Operation Assaf to take control of the Western Negev. The main assaults
were spearheaded by mechanized forces, while Golani Brigade infantry covered the rear. An Egyptian counterattack
was repulsed. The Egyptians planned another counterattack, but it failed after Israeli aerial reconnaissance revealed
Egyptian preparations, and the Israelis launched a preemptive strike. About 100 Egyptians were killed, and 5 tanks
were destroyed, with the Israelis losing 5 killed and 30 wounded.

On 22 December, the IDF launched Operation Horev (also called Operation Ayin). The goal of the operation was
to drive all remaining Egyptian forces from the Negev, destroying the Egyptian threat on Israel's southern communities
and forcing the Egyptians into a ceasefire. During five days of fighting, the Israelis secured the Western Negev,
expelling all Egyptian forces from the area.

Israeli forces subsequently launched raids into the Nitzana area, and entered the Sinai Peninsula on 28 December.
The IDF captured Umm Katef and Abu Ageila, and advanced north towards Al Arish, with the goal of encircling the
entire Egyptian expeditionary force. Israeli forces pulled out of the Sinai on 2 January 1949 following joint
British-American pressure and a British threat of military action. IDF forces regrouped at the border with the Gaza
Strip. Israeli forces attacked Rafah the following day, and after several days of fighting, Egyptian forces in the Gaza
Strip were surrounded. The Egyptians agreed to negotiate a ceasefire on 7 January, and the IDF subsequently
pulled out of Gaza. According to Morris, "the inequitable and unfair rules of engagement: the Arabs could
launch offensives with impunity, but international interventions always hampered and restrained Israel's
counterattacks."

On 28 December, the Alexandroni Brigade failed to take the Falluja Pocket, but managed to seize Iraq el-Manshiyeh
and temporarily hold it. The Egyptians counterattacked, but were mistaken for a friendly force and allowed to
advance, trapping a large number of men. The Israelis lost 87 soldiers.

On 5 March, Operation Uvda was launched following nearly a month of reconnaissance, with the goal of securing
the Southern Negev from Jordan. The IDF entered and secured the territory, but did not meet significant resistance
along the way, as the area was already designated to be part of the Jewish state in the UN Partition Plan, and the
operation meant to establish Israeli sovereignty over the territory rather than actually conquer it. The Golani,
Negev, and Alexandroni brigades participated in the operation, together with some smaller units and with naval
support.

On 10 March, Israeli forces secured the Southern Negev, reaching the southern tip of Palestine: Umm Rashrash
on the Red Sea (where Eilat was built later) and taking it without a battle. Israeli soldiers raised a hand-made
Israeli flag ("The Ink Flag") at 16:00 on 10 March, claiming Umm Rashrash for Israel. The raising of the Ink
Flag is considered to be the end of the war.

Anglo-Israeli air clashes

As the fighting progressed and Israel mounted an incursion into the Sinai, the Royal Air Force began conducting
almost daily reconnaissance missions over Israel and the Sinai. RAF reconnaissance aircraft took off from Egyptian
airbases and sometimes flew alongside Royal Egyptian Air Force planes. High-flying British aircraft frequently flew
over Haifa and Ramat David Airbase, and became known to the Israelis as the "shuftykeit."

On 20 November 1948, an unarmed RAF photo-reconnaissance De Havilland Mosquito of No. 13 Squadron RAF
was shot down by an Israeli Air Force P-51 Mustang flown by American volunteer Wayne Peake as it flew over
the Galilee towards Hatzor Airbase. Peake opened fire with his cannons, causing a fire to break out in the port
engine. The aircraft turned to sea and lowered its altitude, then exploded and crashed off Ashdod. The pilot and
navigator were both killed.

Just before noon on 7 January 1949, four Spitfire FR18s from No. 208 Squadron RAF on a reconnaissance mission
in the Deir al-Balah area flew over an Israeli convoy that had been attacked by five Egyptian Spitfires fifteen minutes
earlier. The pilots had spotted smoking vehicles and were drawn to the scene out of curiosity. Two planes dived to
below 500 feet altitude to take pictures of the convoy, while the remaining two covered them from 1,500 feet.

Israeli soldiers on the ground, alerted by the sound of the approaching Spitfires and fearing another Egyptian air
attack, opened fire with machine guns. One Spitfire was shot down by a tank-mounted machine gun, while the
other was lightly damaged and rapidly pulled up. The remaining three Spitfires were then attacked by patrolling
IAF Spitfires flown by Slick Goodlin and John McElroy, volunteers from the United States and Canada respectively.
All three Spitfires were shot down, and one pilot was killed.

Two pilots were captured by Israeli soldiers and taken to Tel Aviv for interrogation, and were later released. Another
was rescued by Bedouins and handed over to the Egyptian Army, which turned him over to the RAF. Later that day,
four RAF Spitfires from the same squadron escorted by seven Hawker Tempests from No. 213 Squadron RAF and
eight from No. 6 Squadron RAF went searching for the lost planes, and were attacked by four IAF Spitfires. The
Israeli formation was led by Ezer Weizman. The remaining three were manned by Weizman's wingman Alex
Jacobs and American volunteers Bill Schroeder and Caesar Dangott.[207][209] The Tempests found they could
not jettison their external fuel tanks, and some had non-operational guns. Schroeder shot down a British Tempest,
killing pilot David Tattersfield, and Weizman severely damaged a British plane flown by Douglas Liquorish. Weizman's
plane and two other British aircraft also suffered light damage during the engagement. The battle ended after the
British wiggled their wings to be more clearly identified, and the Israelis eventually realized the danger of their
situation and disengaged, returning to Hatzor Airbase.


Israeli Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion personally ordered the wrecks of the RAF fighters that had been shot down
to be dragged into Israeli territory. Israeli troops subsequently visited the crash sites, removed various parts, and
buried the other aircraft. However, the Israelis did not manage to conceal the wrecks in time to prevent British
reconnaissance planes from photographing them. An RAF salvage team was deployed to recover the wrecks,
entering Israeli territory during their search. Two were discovered inside Egypt, while Tattersfield's Tempest was
found north of Nirim, four miles inside Israel. Interviews with local Arabs confirmed that the Israelis had visited
the crash sites to remove and bury the wrecks. Tattersfield was initially buried near the wreckage, but his body
was later removed and reburied at the British War Cemetery in Ramla.

In response, the RAF readied all Tempests and Spitfires to attack any IAF aircraft they encountered and bomb IAF
airfields. British troops in the Middle East were placed on high alert with all leave cancelled, and British citizens were
advised to leave Israel. The Royal Navy was also placed on high alert. At Hatzor Airbase, the general consensus
among the pilots, most of whom had flown with or alongside the RAF during World War II, was that the RAF would
not allow the loss of five aircraft and two pilots to go without retaliation, and would probably attack the base at
dawn the next day. That night, in anticipation of an impending British attack, some pilots decided not to offer any
resistance and left the base, while others prepared their Spitfires and were strapped into the cockpits at dawn,
preparing to repel a retaliatory airstrike. However, despite pressure from the squadrons involved in the incidents,
British commanders refused to authorize any retaliatory strikes.


The day following the incident, British pilots were issued a directive to regard any Israeli aircraft infiltrating Egyptian
or Jordanian airspace as hostile and to shoot them down, but were also ordered to avoid activity close to Israel's
borders. Later in January 1949, the British managed to prevent the delivery of aviation spirit and other essential fuels
to Israel in retaliation for the incident. The British Foreign Office presented the Israeli government with a demand
for compensation over the loss of personnel and equipment.

UN Resolution 194

In December 1948, the UN General Assembly passed Resolution 194. It called to establish a UN Conciliation
Commission to facilitate peace between Israel and Arab states. However, many of the resolution's articles were not
fulfilled, since these were opposed by Israel, rejected by the Arab states, or were overshadowed by war as the
1948 conflict continued.


Map reference:
1. Wikipedia(n.d.), 1948 Arab–Israeli War
     reference 7 Dec 2018 from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War

2. Michael Bar-Zohar, Ben-Gurion: A biography. N.Y.: Delacorte Press, 1979.

3. Martin Gilbert, Atlas of the Arab-Israel Conflict, London & NY: Routledge, 2012.